Domestication and Foreignization of Cultural Terms in Economics Textbook

Accepted Jan 02, 2018 The research deals with domestication and foreignization strategies in translating culture specific items in economics bilingual textbook for junior high school students. The objectives of this study was to investigate the most frequent strategies used in translating culture specific items in economics bilingual textbook for junior high school. The research was conducted by using descriptive qualitative design. The data of this study were words, phrases, and clauses containing culture specific items. The data were collected through documentary technique. The technique of data analysis was interactive model. The finding of this study revealed that for domestication there were 25% cultural terms in the form of word and 46,4% in the form of phrase. While for foreignization, it was found only 21,5% in the form of word, and 7,1% in the form of phrase. It was not found the culture specific items in the form of clause both in domestication strategy and in foreignization strategy. The domestication was the dominant strategy used in translating cultural items in economics bilingual textbook. It indicates the translators tend to introduce Indonesian culture specific items into TL culture.


Background of Study
Translation is such a bridge that across language and culture. Its role can be seen in various areas such as science, entertainment, and even education. It is in line with Bassnett who states that translation has a crucial role to play in aiding understanding of an increasingly fragmentary world (2002, p.1). Without translation, people of across cultural background cannot build a communication well.
One of the role of translation can be seen in the bilingual textbook. Bilingual textbook is often found as a teaching material at school. Not only provides language skill, bilingual textbook also provides culturally relevant experiences for students. Therefore by bilingual textbooks, students do not only get linguistic knowledge but also rich cultural knowledge such as bilingualism, oral traditions, heritage, and culture.
Cultural term or culture-specific item is one of the crucial parts in the study of translation since different culture will cause different meaning. Differences between cultures may cause severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure (Nida,1964, p.130).In addition, difference culture may cause lexical gap. Lexical gap or semantic void refers to phenomenon where there are some words or phrases in one language which are unknown for another language (Gambier,Shlesinger & Stolze,2004,p.11). For instance, in Indonesian beras, padi, nasi, and gabahare translated into rice in English meanwhile they are different in form. It is because Indonesia knows well the difference of them since it is the main course of Indonesia. Although there is no single definition and perception ofculture in terms of translation due to culture's complex nature, many translation theorists agree on the significanceof culture in translation process.
A translation will be categorized as a good translation when it can be read and understood by the readers. Venuti (2008,p.1) says that a good translated text will be accepted by most publishers, reviewers and readers when the absence of linguistic and stylistic pecularities seem to be transparent, so it reflects the source text writer's personality or deliver the essential meaning of the source text smoothly. Therefore, the existence of strategies is needed in making a good translation.
Considering the difficulty of translating cultural term, translation theorists have put forward different strategies to deal with the translation process. Strategies of domestication and foreignization, which see translation as an intercultural act, are two well-known translation strategies. The concepts were formulated by the German philosopher and theologian Frederic Schleiermacher (Schmidt, 2013, p.537). Schleiermacher claimed that either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Lefevere, 1977, p. 74). However, according to Venuti (1995, p.20) domestication refers to-an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bringing the author back home and foreignization is-an ethno-deviant pressure on those values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad.
Various translation strategies have been used in translating culture-specific items. Based on Newmark (1988,p.81), there are fifteen methods for translating culture-specific items. According to him, generally there are two opposing strategies. Synonymy, cultural equivalence, functional equivalence, descriptive equivalance, shift, modulation, naturalization, paraphrase, and componential analysis are parts of domestication. Meanwhile transference, through translation, recognized translation, compensation and notes are parts of foreignization. By knowing the dominant strategies, it is known that the translator expect the readers to be source text oriented or target text oriented. Therefore in this study culture specific items are necessary to be investigated in economic bilingual textbook.

Objectives of Study
In accordance with the background of study, the objective of this study is to analyze translation strategies from Indonesian into English used by the translator.

Culture-specific items
One of the most difficult problems in translating is found in the differences between culture of source language and that of the target language. Different cultures have different focuses. Both languages will probably have terms that are more or less equivalent for various aspects of the culture. When the cultures are very different, it is often very difficult to find equivalent lexical items (Larson,1988, p.150).
Manser (1980, p.102) defines culture as a capacity to appreciate or understand art and literature. Specifically, Newmark (1988,p.94) states that culture is as the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression. Therefore,culture is related to language.In the relation of language as one factor of culture, a translator who is closely concerned with language is consequently affected by culture.
The notion of cultural term is very common in translation. Newmark (1988,p.95) states cultural terms are cultural words involves a translation problem unless there is cultural overlap between the source and the target language. In addition, Aixela (1996) defines culture specific items as those textually actualized items whose function and connotations in a source text involve a translation problem in their transfer to a target text, whenever this problem is a product of nonexistence of the referred. It points out that culture-specific items carries a connotative meaningand can only be understood in correlation between two languages.
Most cultural words are easy to detect since they are associated with a particular language and cannot be literally translated but many cultural customs are described in ordinary language (topping out of building, time, gentlemen, please, mud in your eye), where literal translation would distort the meaning and a translation may include an appropriate descriptive-functional equivalent. Cultural objects may be referred to by a relatively culture-free generic term or classifier (e.g. tea) plus the various additions in different cultures and you have to account for these additions (rum, lemon, milk, biscuits, cake, other courses, various times of day), which may appear in the course of the source language text. Thus, the indicators of cultural terms are words, phrases, or an expression, which reflects culture value, sometimes cannot be literally translated and involves translation problem.
Adapting Newmark (1988), there are some categories of cultural words. They are as follows. 2) Material culture (Artifacts) relates to the objects produces by humans own by certain cultures. Every culture has its own characteristics and it is expressed in its materials. The materials involved in this category are food, clothes, houses, and towns, transportation, etc.
3) Social culture relates to work, leisure, the names of music, games, or dance and so on. The activities done by people vary in one place to another. This happens because every place has its own culture. The obvious cultural words that denote leisure activities in Europe are the national games with their lexical sets such as cricket, bull-fighting, boule, petanque, hockey. Other instancesof social culture are condotttere(the leaders of the professional military in Italian), sithar(saints in India), reggae (music genre), rock (music genre), kuda lumping, malamtakbiran, etc.
4) Organizations, customs, activities, procedures, conceptsrelate to the things above, which exist in certain culture. The concepts may include political and administrative, religious, artistic, etc.

5) Gesture and habit
For gestures and habits, there is a distinction between description and function, which can be made where necessary in ambiguous cases. Thus, if people smile a little when someone dies, do a slow handclap to express warm appreciation, spit as a blessing nod to dissent or shake their head to assent, kiss their fingertips to greet or to praise, give a thumbs-up to signal OK, all of which occur in some cultures and not in others.
This study uses theory of cultural categories that proposed by Newmark. The theory is chosen since Newmark's cultural categories are more detail. The cultural categories are appropriate to be applied in analyzing the data, which contains many specific terms of cultures.

Domestication and Foreignization
Domestication and foreignization are two basic translation strategies which provide both linguistic and cultural guidance (Yang 2010, p.1) in rendering culture-specific source texts into parallel target texts. Domestication is the type of translation which involves minimizing the source-text foreign elements to the target-language cultural values (Munday,2001). Foreignization, on the other hand, involves retaining the foreigness of the original-language text (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997). In Venuti' perspective, the foreign elements should be highlighted by the translator to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text (Venuti,1995). Whereas Nida sees domestication as the strategy that seeks to achieve complete naturalness of the expression by means of dynamic equivalence. Therefore, the messagehas to be tailored to the receptor"s linguistic needs and cultural expectations (Munday 2001, p. 42).
If the translator uses foreignization strategy, which is source text oriented, the target text reader makes an effort to understand what the cultural element refers to. In this case, the reader might not read the text as comfortable as in the domestication strategy, and might need to make an effort to understand the cultural element if he/she does not know what it means, and the text might face the danger of not being fluent. However, the reader can learn a new word and concept this way and improve his/her general knowledge and understanding of other cultures. Besides, it is necessary to keep in mind that conception of foreignness might create different effects on different readers. A reader who is willing to learn a new culture might find this foreignness interesting. A reader who is distant to learning different cultures, on the other hand, might find it boring, tiring or unnecessary. In broad scope, foreignization strategy might also enrich the target culture by adding new cultural concepts from the source culture to the target culture. This method might help bring cultures closer and develop understanding of and tolerance towardsother cultures.

Translation Strategies of Culture Specific Items
To determine the domestication or foreignization requires Newmark's strategies. The following translation strategies based on Newmark are chosen within the scope of this study.

1) Literal translation (Word-for-word translation): Source text cultural element is translated into target
language word for word. Form is more important than meaning.
2) Transference: Element of source culture is transferred directlywithout translation. Notes, additions and glosses : supplying additional information. The translator might feel the need to give extra information. This additional information might be given in the text; as notes at the bottom of the page or at the end of the chapter; or at the end of the book as notes or glossary (Newmark, 1988, p.81-93).

Data and Source of Data
The source of data of this research was Economic Bilingual Textbook for junior high school students in the seventh grade. It was in the first edition written by Suroso and Rendro Adi Widigdo. It was translated by Ririn Wulanjari and published by Tiga Serangkai in 2010. English language in the textbook was as the target text. The data of the research were words and phrases containing culture specific items in Economics Bilingual Textbook for junior high school students in the eighth grade.

The Technique of Data Collection
The data were collected by using documentary technique. According to Bailey cited in Ahmed (2010) documentary research method refers to the analysis of documents that contains information about the phenomenon we wish to study.

The Technique of Data Analysis
The technique of data analysis of this study used interactive model. Miles, Huberman and Saldana (2014:31) state that there are three steps used to analyze the data, they are data condensation, data display and conclusion drawing or verification.
Step one: data condensation included the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting and transforming the words, phrases, and clauses in the economic bilingual textbook in order to make sure that it was really suitable as the criteria of culture specific items.
Step two: after condensating the words, phrases and clauses in the textbook, the data were displaying in table to ease the readers understood the data. The data were organized from the culture-specific items in economic bilingual book.
Step three: the data were concluded and verified. To draw conclusion and verify the data, it was done by studying the theory In this study, conclusion was drawn based on table in the data display. Then verification was done by revising the data as many times as necessary.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
After precisely studying the economic bilingual textbook written by Suroso and Widigdo and its translation by Ririn WUlanjari, 28 culture specific items were found. Then the strategies used in their translation into English were analyzed according to the strategies proposed by Newmark and Venuti. From all culture specific items, it was found that for domestication there were 25% cultural terms in the form of word and 46,4% in the form of phrase. While for foreignization, it was found only 21,5% in the form of word, and 7,1% in the form of phrase. The followings are the points of discussions needed to be made for the use of each of the strategies.

 Transference
There were 4 transference strategies found in economics bilingual textbook. In this strategy, the translator did not change the name into English term. For example :

 Cultural Equivalent
There were 3 cultural equivalent strategies found in this study. By using this strategy, the cultural terms may be delivered well becaused by looking at their own culture, the readers get the message. One of them is : Farmer work hard to get harvest as many as possible.

 Functional Equivalent
It was found 3 functional equivalent strategies in economic bilingual textbook. By functional equivalent, the translator generalizes the SL word as shown in the example below: If she cannot get something to drink, she will die.

 Descriptive Equivalent
By this strategy, the translator explaining the term in SL text into TL text in several words. It was found there are 3 descriptive equivalent strategies as shown in the example:

 Componential Analysis
By this strategy, the translator compare SL text with TL text which has a similar meaning. There are 6 componential analysis strategies as shown as example as follows.

 Synonymy
By this strategy, the translator translated SL text into common names in TL text as shown in the example below.

 Shift
By this strategy, the translator change in the grammar from SL text to TL text. It was found only 1 shift strategy in this study as shown in the example below: However, he can keep going to Jakarta by train in the evening.

 Couplets
It was found there were 3 couplest strategies in this study. By this strategy, the translator applied two different strategies together. For example functional and cultural strategies used together in translating a term as follows.
A product must be written notification lawful for a religion.
The dominant strategy used in economic bilingual textbook can be seen in table below.

CONCLUSION
As the result of the investigation on the strategies of translation of cultural terms on Economics Bilingual Textbook, it is concluded that in his attempt to translate the cultural term the translator dominantly used domestication strategy with compensation analysis as the most frequent strategy used and the other were synonymy, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent. It indicates the translators tend to introduce Indonesian culture specific items into TL culture. In addition, it was not found the culture specific items in the form of clause both in domestication strategy and in foreignization strategy.The translator assumed that the domestication of the translation has improved its readability and acceptance among students. Accordingly, the information gained from this study can be helpful for translators, teachers of translation, and translation students in that it will improve their ability to translate cultural terms. Therefore, the teachers should be aware in choosing bilingual textbook for students.